Abstract: Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is a thermoplastic polymer that presents notable thermal resistance, high mechanical strength, biocompatibility, durability, chemical resistance, and low density. PEEK can be additively manufactured by Power Bed Fusion (PBF) and Material Extrusion (ME) techniques. However, the latter is easier to operate and less expensive than the first solution. Printing parameters and thermal post-processing are fundamental aspects to improve the mechanical and thermal properties of the printed part. In the present study, the effects of two distinct thermal post-processing treatments and three different printing speeds on the mechanical properties of PEEK samples produced by ME were investigated. 45 specimens were manufactured, 15 for each printing speed and 5 for each thermal treatment. The results demonstrated that for the as-printed condition, higher printing speeds produced the greatest outcomes in terms of ultimate tensile strength and elastic modulus, whereas the lowest printing speed produced the maximum strain at break. The thermal post-processing treatments revealed that the one carried out at lower temperatures resulted in negligible changes, while the other significantly improved the mechanical performance of the material. The study's findings provide a solid foundation for printing and post-processing a cutting-edge polymer like PEEK to maximize its potential.

Keywords: Material Extrusion | Mechanical Properties | PEEK | Printing Speed | Thermal Post-Processing

Abstract: In recent years, virtual reality technology has grown more widely available. This creates new opportunities and methods in the field of education, particularly for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines. This study describes the design and the development of an immersive virtual reality laboratory (VR Lab) that aims to introduce novel activities and practical experiments in the field of industrial engineering and material science that can be highly beneficial for students. The laboratory enables students to experience and learn the macro and micro behavior of various engineering materials. The VR Lab is designed as an open-space room that is digitally divided into multiple learning stations, each of which is dedicated to a specific aspect of the subject. A virtual mechanical tensile test machine may operate with various materials and display the results by combining finite element analysis simulations and stress-strain curve. In another station, students can be transported inside atomic and molecular structures of various materials and can investigate how dislocations and slipping planes influence the mechanical behavior of metals or how the alignment of molecular chains affects the strength of polymers. Immersive VR Lab showed great potential for education. The developed virtual learning stations can be used to complement learning activities and physical experiments that are generally too risky, too expensive, or simply too time-consuming to be carried out in a real classroom, particularly in the STEM area.

Keywords: Engineering Education | Material Science Teaching | STEM | Virtual Reality | VR Lab

Abstract: The growing attention of people to aesthetics has led to a greater demand for dental whitening treatments. Several solutions can be utilized to obtain the desired visual whiteness of teeth but, according to literature, at-home supervised treatments are the standard in dental bleaching. They require soft plastic trays to contain a whitening gel, with active chemical agents, and keep it in contact with the patient’s teeth. The fitting, comfort, and tightness of trays play a fundamental role in the treatment. Any gel leakage can compromise the effectiveness of the treatment and damage soft tissues. Commonly, the trays are ready-made or based on physical dental impressions and manually modified by the dental technician. These procedures have low repeatability and do not always ensure high accuracy. This work presents an automatic digital algorithm to design customized whitening trays. Starting from a digital scan acquisition of the patient’s dental arches, it generates the 3D models of the bespoke trays, in approximately two minutes per arch, ready to be produced by additive manufacturing and thermoforming technologies. The evaluation of the method involved 20 patients. The results emphasize that the custom trays were comfortable and ensured high levels of tightness and fitting.

Keywords: automatic product design | custom teeth trays | dental whitening | digital process

Abstract: Lattice structures play an increasingly crucial role in Additive Manufacturing (AM) to enhance the performance of parts for industrial and biomedical applications. Among AM technologies, VAT photopolymerization is one of the most suitable in producing shapes characterized by a good resolution and fine details as required for lattice structures. High stiffness and strength photoresins are commonly adopted when strut-and-node lattice structures, based on stretch-dominated unit cells, are printed. However, this choice can lead to brittle and sudden structural failures, undermining the use of these structures due to safety reasons. This work evaluates the effect of chemical post-processing on the deformation behavior and the tensile properties of SLA strut-and-node-based lattice structures. FCC (Face-Centered Cubic) lattice structures with two different layer heights were tested, and a highly deformable UV resin was used as a coating product. Results evidenced an increase in specimen elongation up to 64% for coated FCC lattice structures with respect to as printed samples. Chemical post-processing based on resin coating demonstrated to be an effective solution to get additively manufactured strut-and-node-based lattice structures characterized both by high strength and high strain.

Keywords: Coating post-processing | Lattice structures | Tensile properties | VAT photopolymerization

Abstract: Conventionally, visitors of exhibitions cannot directly interact with artworks but remain mainly passive. This work presents a new way to discover paintings through an extended reality application with the aim of enhancing visitors’ engagement. The workflow consists of digitally recreating a painting. All its constitutive elements are contoured and then removed by the artwork. These elements will be unveiled by the visitors with gesture interaction. The discovery of each element is followed by additional information on the subject. The application also proposes an alternative experience where the user paints the components of the artwork with gestures. The hands’ position was tracked by the Leap Motion Controller, an optical sensor by Ultraleap. The process has been applied to one of the Tintoretto’s pieces of art: “L’Annunciazione del Doge Grimani”. The extended reality application has been experienced by over twenty thousand visitors at the dedicated exhibition. Numerous positive comments received from both visitors and guides are encouraging.

Keywords: Cultural heritage | Exhibition | Extended reality | User interaction

Abstract: The demand for orthodontic and aesthetic treatments, aimed at having healthier teeth and more beautiful smiles, is increasingly growing. The devices on which these treatments are based must be rigorously bespoke for each patient. This is amplifying the need to develop digitized workflows, ranging from scanning to Additive Manufacturing (AM). The present work proposes an alternative workflow for designing and manufacturing orthodontic aligners, also known as clear aligners, starting from the intraoral scanning of the patient’s dentition. Orthodontic aligners are an alternative to metal brackets to correct dental malocclusions and they are often preferred by the patients because of their lower impact on facial aesthetics and for their higher comfort. The orthodontic treatments based on the aligners utilize a series of aligners, each one with a geometry slightly different from the previous one. The use of the single aligners is aimed to apply a force to the teeth and gradually aligning them until the end of the treatment. The workflow we propose in the present study is based on the following three main stages: intraoral scanning of the patient’s dentition, design of the aligners through a semi-automatic algorithm, and the direct additive manufacturing of the aligners through VAT photopolymerization technique. The possibility to directly additive manufacturing the aligners allows us to rethink the current orthodontic treatments. The aligners geometry can be re-designed, with the possibility of locally manipulating the thickness. This approach would allow the regulation of the amount of force applied locally to the tooth, thus optimizing the treatment and its duration. A feasibility study of the proposed workflow is reported in the present paper, with a focus on the semi-automatic design algorithm and on the additive manufacturing process of the aligners.

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing | Bespoke Medical Devices | Dental Appliances | Design Algorithms for Medical Applications | DfAM

Abstract: The human hand is a versatile and complex body part. It permits difficult movements with various degrees of precision and force. Several causes can lead to upper limb damage, including musculoskeletal disorders and diseases like stroke. The impairment can affect daily living activities. Patients usually undergo rehabilitation therapy with medical personnel for a long time after the traumatic event. In most cases, they use off-the-shelf medical devices. However, the shape of the upper limbs can differ a lot among people. A bespoke rehabilitative device could provide better comfort and usability, but the design process can be challenging. This work aims to present a digital workflow to generate a 3D virtual reconstruction of the patient’s upper limb structure, to be used in the device design. Starting from a 3D scan acquisition of the patient’s upper limb, the algorithm allows the creation of a polygonal mesh of the arm and the hand by a semi-automatic procedure. The algorithm uses neural networks’ capability to automatically detect the upper limb’s landmarks to localize the joints’ coordinates. The joints’ positions can be used to build a virtual skeleton for a 3D model of a human arm. The mesh of the model is subsequently wrapped around the scan of the real arm. The output consists in the 3D rigged model of the patient’s upper limb with a manifold mesh that can be deformed using its virtual skeleton. The results have been assessed with patients who had sports injuries or strokes. The 3D deviations between the scan acquisition of the arm and the resulting model have been evaluated.

Keywords: 3D scan | 3D virtual reconstruction | automatic landmarks detection | neural network | upper limb rigged model

Abstract: The 3D reconstruction of upper limb anatomy plays a significant role in many biomedical fields such as ergonomics, motion rehabilitation, and prosthesis design. In the last few years, the technical advancement of consumer-grade depth cameras has supported the development of portable and low-cost optical 3D body scanners for healthcare applications. The real-time scanning of human body parts, however, still represents a complex task due to the non-stationary nature of the scanning target. This issue imposes that the scanning time must be reduced as much as possible to minimize scanning artifacts. In this regard, depth cameras can capture geometrical information at video frame rates, thus guaranteeing fast acquisition times. Furthermore, the simultaneous use of multiple sensors would minimize undercut geometries, which impair the 3D reconstruction’s completeness. In this work, a portable 3D optical scanner has been developed by rigidly assembling three Intel® RealSense™ D415 depth cameras on a lightweight circular frame. The three sensors are mutually calibrated, by using a 3D printed calibration specimen, to simultaneously align acquisitions from the three different camera viewpoints for each scanner pose. The system’s effectiveness has been assessed by acquiring the geometry of both a plaster hand and a human hand and comparing the results with those obtained by a high-end stationary structured light scanner. The developed system represents a low-cost handheld alternative to existing body scanners for collecting and storing 3D anatomical data, which can be used in the design process of bespoke medical devices.

Keywords: 3D optical scanning | D415 Intel® RealSense™ | Depth-camera | Upper Limb Reconstruction

Abstract: Typical additive manufacturing (AM) processes for producing metal and ceramic parts are highly energy-consuming and expensive to install and maintain. On the other hand, material extrusion AM (MEAM) technologies are conventionally used to produce polymeric parts but only marginally to process metallic materials. A feasible alternative is to process polymeric filaments loaded with metal particles. Debinding and sintering processes are then required to join the metal particles and obtain the final parts. In recent years, highly filled metal filaments consisting of a polymer loaded with a high concentration of metal powder have been commercialized for this purpose. In this study, the printability of a commercial CuSn12 filament was investigated by evaluating the influence of the process parameters on the density, shrinkage, porosity, and mechanical properties of the additively manufactured samples using a low-cost desktop 3D printer. Parameters such as the flow rate and ironing had the greatest influence on the density of the green samples. The correct selection of these parameters may reduce shrinkage after sintering. Furthermore, the obtained bronze had a notable ultimate tensile strength (mean value of 107 MPa), high stiffness (E values range from 38 to 50 GPa), and a greater elongation at break (mean value of 13%) than that of cast bronze of the same CuSn12 type. In this case, the extrusion pattern and ironing had the most significant influence on the final mechanical performance. The study provides insights into the use of highly filled bronze filaments combined with MEAM to produce functional parts for engineering applications.

Keywords: Highly filled bronze filament | Mechanical properties | Metal material extrusion | Printing parameters | Shrinkage

Abstract: Primary dentition is crucial in influencing the emergence of permanent teeth. Premature primary tooth loss can result in undesired tooth motions and space loss in the permanent dentition. Typically, fixed or removable dental appliances are adopted to maintain edentulous space until the eruption of permanent teeth. However, traditional space maintainers have limitations in terms of variability in tooth anatomy, potential allergic reactions in some individuals (i.e., nickel sensitivity), difficulties in maintaining oral hygiene, and patient acceptance. The present study introduces a fully digital framework for the design and manufacturing of customized pediatric unilateral space maintainers using generative algorithms. The proposed approach overcomes the current challenges by using a biocompatible resin material and optimizing the device’s size, design, and color. The methodology involves intraoral scanning, surface selection, and trim, generative 3D modeling, finite element analysis (FEA), and additive manufacturing (AM) through vat photopolymerization. FEA results demonstrate the device’s mechanical performance and reliability, while additive manufacturing ensures design freedom, high resolution, surface finishing, dimensional accuracy, and proper fit. The mechanical interlocking system facilitates easy and effective positioning of the device. This digital approach offers the potential for wider usage of space maintainers and can be further validated through experimental assessments and clinical studies.

Keywords: 3D printing | digital space maintainer | FEA analysis | generative design | pediatric dentistry

Abstract: Featured Application: Future interactive devices. Additive Manufacturing (AM) facilitates product development due to the various native advantages of AM when compared to traditional manufacturing processes. Efficiency, customisation, innovation, and ease of product modifications are a few advantages of AM. This manufacturing process can therefore be applied to fabricate customisable devices, such as bespoke interactive devices for rehabilitation purposes. In this context, a two-day workshop titled Design for Additive Manufacturing: Future Interactive Devices (DEFINED) was held to discuss the design for AM issues encountered in the development of an innovative bespoke controller and supporting platform, in a Virtual Reality (VR)-based environment, intended for people with limited dexterity in their hands. The workshop sessions were transcribed, and a thematic analysis was carried out to identify the main topics discussed. The themes were Additive Manufacturing, Generative Design Algorithms, User-Centred Design, Measurement Devices for Data Acquisition, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, and Haptics. These themes were then discussed in relation to the available literature. The main conclusion of this workshop was that a coherent design for AM tools is needed by designers to take AM considerations throughout the design process, since they lack the AM knowledge required to develop bespoke interactive devices.

Keywords: design for AM knowledge | future interactive devices | user experiences

Abstract: Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing (MEAM) for metals is becoming increasingly appealing compared to other metal AM techniques, which are typically energy-intensive and require equipment expensive to install and maintain. In MEAM a polymeric feedstock filled with metal particles is extruded through a heated nozzle; subsequently, the 3D-printed green parts are debound and sintered. This study investigates the feasibility of producing functional Inconel-718 components with a commercial filament and a desktop printer, using a one-step thermal debiding and sintering procedure. To this purpose, the feedstock was extensively characterized, and optimal printing parameters were determined using the design of experiment technique and statistical analysis. Then tensile specimens were printed, debound, sintered and their mechanical and physical properties were measured. The specimens reached a maximum relative density of 83.4% and a maximum ultimate tensile strength of 223 MPa. A decrease in the debinding heat rate was required to avoid macro-void formation.

Abstract: This paper explores how the examination of additively manufactured auxetic componentry can be applied in human-centred design settings with particular focus on biomedical products. Firstly, the design applications of auxetics are detailed followed by a review of the key problems facing practical researchers in the field with the treatment of boundary conditions identified as a key issue. The testing setup that is then introduced utilises a novel method of part mounting and facilitates optical analysis and real-time force–displacement measurements. A study is advanced that analyses three different auxetic structures (re-entrant, chiral, and semi-rigid), a set of samples of which were additively manufactured in flexible TPU material. A range of parameters were varied across the three designs including interior geometry and wall thicknesses in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the setup for the examination of the different structures. The results from these examinations are subsequently discussed and a number of suggestions made regarding how this kind of analysis may be integrated into novel design development workflows for achieving human-centred biomedical devices which often require detailed consideration of ergonomic and usability factors.

Keywords: Auxetics | Biomedical applications | Human-centred design | Mechanical testing

Abstract: Additive manufacturing is a technology gaining ground in fields where a high degree of product customization is required; in particular, several aspects need to be explored concerning traditional technologies, such as the variety of materials and their consumption. It also remains to be clarified whether these technologies can contribute to the ecological transition when applied in healthcare. This study compares two technologies for producing clear dental aligners: thermoforming and direct 3D printing. The former method thermoforms a polymeric disc over 3D-printed, customized models. The second, more innovative approach involves directly printing aligners using Additive Manufacturing (AM), specifically applying Digital Light Processing (DLP) technology. The study conducts a comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis to assess the environmental impact of these two different manufacturing processes. The research results highlight that adopting direct printing through AM can bring advantages in terms of environmental sustainability, thanks to the reduction in raw materials and electricity consumption. These drops are drivers for the decreased potential environmental impacts across all impact categories considered within the EF 3.1 method. Furthermore, lowering the amount of raw material needed in the direct printing process contributes to a notable decrease in the overall volume of waste generated, emphasizing the environmental benefits of this technique.

Keywords: additive manufacturing | healthcare | life cycle assessment | sustainability

Abstract: This study presents an alternative process for designing and manufacturing customized trays for dental-whitening treatments. The process is based on a digitized approach consisting of three main stages: design of a reference model, its manufacturing by AM, and thermoforming of the tray. The aim of the study was to develop a high-performance tray, able to guarantee comfort, safety, and efficacy for whitening treatments. To evaluate the patient’s experience, some tests under real operating conditions were performed. Twenty people carried out a nighttime treatment of 14 days. Each patient was asked to assess the overall level of satisfaction and the comfort of the tray and its ability to retain the gel. Tooth whitening was also determined according to the VITAPAN scale. All patients involved in the study were satisfied and provided positive feedback about comfort and tightness of the tray. At the end of the treatment, 15 out of 20 patients achieved shade A1 on the VITAPAN scale. The mean improvement in color shades was about 7. These results confirmed the great potential of the proposed dental tray. Its use was proven to guarantee a high level of quality, flexibility, and customization of dental-whitening treatments, improving comfort, safety, and efficacy.

Keywords: additive technologies | bespoke dental trays | custom design | dental engineering | digital manufacturing | esthetic dentistry | tooth whitening

Abstract: The 3D reconstruction of upper limb anatomy plays a significant role in many biomedical fields as ergonomics, motion rehabilitation, prosthesis design. Conventional manual measurements have been progressively replaced by 3D optical scanning in collecting and storing 3D anatomical data, thus increasing reliability and data accuracy, shortening, at the same time, the overall acquisition process. However, the real-time scanning of human body parts still represents a complex task since it is challenging to keep the arm in a stable position and avoid artifacts in the collected data. Also, optical undercut geometries often impair the 3D reconstruction’s completeness. In this paper, a compact and low-cost 3D scanning system has been developed by integrating three D415 Intel RealSense cameras. The three depth cameras have been assembled in a circular rig to define a lightweight handheld scanner capable of carrying out 3D data acquisition in different scenarios. The optical system has been validated through anthropometric measurements on different subjects.

Keywords: 3D scanning | D415 Intel realSense | Depth-camera | Upper limb anatomy

Abstract: Lattice structures have many outstanding properties, and their use in diversified industrial and biomedical fields is widely studied. The advent of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies has further pushed the design of these cellular structures allowing for the fabrication of complex trusses and tailored local geometries. However, geometrical defects introduced by the AM process into printed lattice structures significantly affect their mechanical properties. In this work, the effect of chemical post-processing on the compressive properties of FDM-PLA strut-and-node-based lattice structures is evaluated. A UV resin has been used as a coating film on samples fabricated using Simple Cubic (SC) and Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) unit cells. Results demonstrated a 65% increase in compressive strength for SC unit cells and a 12% increase for FCC unit cells with respect to as-printed samples. Resin coating demonstrated to represent an effective approach to minimize defects of strut-and-node-based lattice structures, thus enhancing mechanical properties.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing | Coating post-process | Compressive properties | Lattice structures

Abstract: This paper reports upon the results of an initial test cycle using a bespoke testing rig designed expressly to examine additively manufactured auxetic components. Firstly, the key problems facing practical researchers in the field of auxetics is explored with the treatment of the boundary condition identified as a key issue. The testing setup that is then introduced utilises a novel method of part mounting and facilitates optical analysis and real-time force measurements. The study analyses three different auxetic structures (re-entrant, chiral, and semi-rigid), a set of samples of which were additively manufactured in TPU material. A range of parameters were varied across the three designs including interior geometry and wall thicknesses in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the setup for the examination of different structures. Several key results were distilled from the tests that were then further analysed through numerical modelling and discussed with respect to future testing. Our investigation shows a close alignment between the physical testing results and the simulations, indicating that the testing configuration is rigorous and may be used to explore the mechanical behaviour of more complex auxetic componentry.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing | Auxetics | Mechanical analysis | Simulation

Abstract: Additive Manufacturing techniques, such as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), are widely used to produce lattice structures with complex unit cell geometries. These structures can be designed to meet specific requirements in a wide range of application fields, ranging from biomedical to mechanical sectors. The mechanical behavior of these structures is often impaired by a low surface quality. However, the mechanical strength of polymer lattice structures can be significantly improved with the use of post-processing treatments. Coating post-processing is one of the treatments that showed the best results. Nevertheless, research interests are often targeted at studying the static mechanical properties rather than the fatigue behavior of polymer components. In this work, the effect of a polymeric coating on the fatigue life of Polylactic acid (PLA) lattice structures, produced by FDM, was investigated. Specimens have been designed to enable the application of both tensile and compressive loads. Preliminary tensile tests were carried out to assess the static strength of the specimen before the fatigue tests. Experimental fatigue tests were performed with varying testing frequencies and displacements. The results evidenced differences in the behavior of coated and non-coated components when subjected to different testing frequencies and loading conditions. The polymeric coating produced an increase in fatigue endurance across different testing frequencies over a particular displacement range.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing | coating | fatigue | FDM | lattice structure | PLA

Abstract: The use of ventilated hulls is rapidly expanding. However, experimental and numerical analyses are still very limited, particularly for high-speed vessels and for stepped planing hulls. In this work, the authors present a comparison between towing tank tests and CFD analyses carried out on a single-stepped planing hull provided with forced ventilation on the bottom. The boat has identical geometries to those presented by the authors in other works, but with the addition of longitudinal rails. In particular, the study addresses the effect of the rails on the bottom of the hull, in terms of drag, and the wetted surface assessment. The computational methodology is based on URANS equation with multiphase models for high-resolution interface capture between air and water. The tests have been performed varying seven velocities and six airflow rates and the no-air injection condition. Compared to flat-bottomed hulls, a higher incidence of numerical ventilation and air–water mixing effects was observed. At the same time, no major differences were noted in terms of the ability to drag the flow aft at low speeds. Results in terms of drag reduction, wetted surface, and its shape are discussed.

Keywords: Air cavity ships | Computational fluid dynamics | Hull design | Hull ventilation | Stepped planing hull

Abstract: The potential of additive manufacturing to produce optimised and customized polymeric parts is often impaired by poor surface finish, low mechanical properties, and insufficient dimensional accuracy. Post-processing treatments are usually adopted to address these issues. Scientific community and industrial actors are engaged in the development and use of post-processing to enhance the performance and widen the range of application of polymeric components manufactured by additive technologies. The present work aims to provide an exhaustive classification and discussion of the post-processing treatments, as well as an extensive literature review of the approaches proposed within the scientific community. A holistic view of post-processing is provided, including a discussion of the benefits associated with each technique as well as its side effects. This work is intended to support the selection of the most appropriate post-processing by considering multiple aspects such as the material, part geometry, processing time, costs, and treatment specificity.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing | polymers | post-processing treatments

Abstract: This paper describes an innovative 3D-printed beam-based lightweight structure that is used to increase the adhesion strength of metal-composite joints without damaging the composite fibers. It is conceived as the interface between the two parts to be joined: by filling the voids of this structure with resin, a mechanical interlocking effect can be generated to enhance the mechanical properties of the junction. A dedicated design workflow was defined to explore different types of 3D beam-based structures, starting from the analysis of the main failure modes of this type of junction. Tensile tests were performed on both polymeric and metal samples to validate the effectiveness of this interlocking strategy. Results demonstrated an increase in the adhesion strength relative to standard adhesive joints. A possible practical implementation is also discussed: a new type of insert is presented for application in metal-to-polymer composite joints. Finally, such a beam-based joining approach also represents an innovative application in the field of design for additive manufacturing.

Keywords: 00-01 | 99-00 | Design for additive manufacturing | Lattice structures | Material extrusion | Metal-composite junctions | Powder bed fusion

Abstract: 3D digital models of the upper limb anatomy represent the starting point for the design process of bespoke devices, such as orthoses and prostheses, which can be modeled on the actual patient’s anatomy by using CAD (Computer Aided Design) tools. The ongoing research on optical scanning methodologies has allowed the development of technologies that allow the surface reconstruction of the upper limb anatomy through procedures characterized by minimum discomfort for the patient. However, the 3D optical scanning of upper limbs is a complex task that requires solving problematic aspects, such as the difficulty of keeping the hand in a stable position and the presence of artefacts due to involuntary movements. Scientific literature, indeed, investigated different approaches in this regard by either integrating commercial devices, to create customized sensor architectures, or by developing innovative 3D acquisition techniques. The present work is aimed at presenting an overview of the state of the art of optical technologies and sensor architectures for the surface acquisition of upper limb anatomies. The review analyzes the working principles at the basis of existing devices and proposes a categorization of the approaches based on handling, pre/post-processing effort, and potentialities in real-time scanning. An in-depth analysis of strengths and weaknesses of the approaches proposed by the research community is also provided to give valuable support in selecting the most appropriate solution for the specific application to be addressed.

Keywords: Body scanner | Depth cameras | Handheld scanner | Stationary scanner | Structured light scanning | Upper limb 3D scanning

Abstract: The use of metal-free thermoplastic materials plays a key role in the orthodontic digital workflow due to the increasing demand for clear aligner treatments. Three thermoplastic polymers commonly used to fabricate clear aligners, namely Duran®, Biolon® and Zendura®, were investigated to evaluate the effect of thermoforming (T.), storage in artificial saliva (S.A.S.) and their combination on their mechanical properties. Elastic modulus and yield stress of the specimens were characterized. Each material was characterized for each condition through tensile tests (ISO527-1). The results showed that thermoforming does not lead to a significant decrease in yield stress, except for Zendura® that showed about a 30% decrease. An increase of the elastic modulus of Duran® and Zendura®, instead, was observed after thermoforming. The same increase was noticed for the yield stress of Duran®. For S.A.S. specimens, the elastic modulus generally decreases compared to supplier condition (A.S.) and simply thermoformed material. A decrease of yield stress, instead, is significant for Zendura®. The results demonstrated that the impact of the operating conditions on the mechanical properties can vary according to the specific polymer. To design reliable and effective orthodontic treatments, the materials should be selected after their mechanical properties are characterized in the simulated intraoral environment.

Keywords: Mechanical properties | Orthodontic aligners | Simulated oral environment | Thermoplastic polymers

Abstract: Moisture absorption degrades the mechanical properties of polymeric parts that are 3D-printed by fused filament fabrication (FFF). This limitation is particularly significant for short fiber-reinforced polymers because the mechanical enhancement obtained by the fiber reinforcement can be compromised by the plasticizing effect introduced by water absorption. Therefore, the present work investigates the effects of two different coatings, a UV cured acrylate resin and an acrylic varnish, on the moisture absorption of FFF 3D-printed samples consisting of polyamide reinforced by short carbon fibers. Water content (CI) and open porosity (OP) were estimated through water absorption tests in distilled water for 2, 24, and 168 h, and after reconditioning. The coating effects were evaluated by conducting tensile tests to compare the Young's modulus, yield stress, and ultimate stress of the coated and uncoated specimens. The results demonstrated a significant reduction of CI and OP with both the acrylic and UV resin coatings, as well as considerable enhancements of these samples’ mechanical properties. Stress-strain curves evidenced a strain reduction after water immersion, which can be ascribed to a greater stability against different moisture conditions. These findings indicate the significant potential of the proposed coating processes to extend the use of FFF 3D-printed composite materials to a broader range of applications.

Keywords: Fused filament fabrication | Material extrusion | Mechanical properties enhancement | Moisture absorption | Short fiber-reinforced polymers

Abstract: In recent years, Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) has become one of the most attractive Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques, due to the advantages in the production of complex shapes with a wide range of materials and low investment costs. The thermoplastic polymers used for FDM technology are characterized by low mechanical properties if compared to those of composites and metals. This issue is usually overcome by reinforcing the thermoplastic polymer with chopped fibres or particles. Moreover, a second issue arises, which is represented by the water absorption with a relevant impact on mechanical properties and dimensional stability of printed models. In this paper, an experimental study is presented with the aim at evaluating the water absorption influence on mechanical properties of Carbon PA (Polyamide matrix reinforced with Carbon Fiber at 20%) specimens fabricated with the FDM technique. Two post-processing treatments, based on the use of acrylic spray and photosensitive resin, have been also proposed to improve the behaviour of Carbon PA printed parts. Results of water absorption tests and tensile tests demonstrated a significant improvement in terms of weight stability and mechanical properties by adopting the proposed post-processing treatments.

Keywords: Carbon fiber | Coating treatment | Fused Deposition Modeling | Mechanical characterization | Water absorption

Abstract: The potentiality of the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process for multi-material printing has not yet been thoroughly explored in the literature. That is a limitation considering the wide diffusion of dual extruders printers and the possibility of increasing the number of these extruders. An exploratory study, based on tensile tests and performed on double-material butt-joined bars, was thus conceived; the aim was to explore how the adhesion strength between 3 pairs of filaments (TPU-PLA, PLA-CPE, CPE-TPU) is influenced by the material printing order, the type of slicing pattern used for the layers at the interface, and the infill density of the layers below the interface. Results confirm the effectiveness of mechanical interlocking strategies in increasing the adhesion strength even when thermodynamic and diffusion mechanisms of adhesion are not robust enough. Besides, thermal aspects also demonstrated to play a relevant role in influencing the performance of the interface.

Keywords: design for additive manufacturing | fused deposition modelling (FDM) | multi-material adhesion | Multi-material printing | slicing parameters

Abstract: The paper describes the design of a wearable and wireless system that allows the real-time identification of some gestures performed by basketball players. This system is specifically designed as a support for coaches to track the activity of two or more players simultaneously. Each wearable device is composed of two separate units, positioned on the wrists of the user, connected to a personal computer (PC) via Bluetooth. Each unit comprises a triaxial accelerometer and gyroscope, a microcontroller, installed on a TinyDuino platform, and a battery. The concept of activity recognition chain is investigated and used as a reference for the gesture recognition process. A sliding window allows the system to extract relevant features from the incoming data streams: mean values, standard deviations, maximum values, minimum values, energy, and correlations between homologous axes are calculated to identify and differentiate the performed actions. Machine learning algorithms are implemented to handle the recognition phase.

Abstract: Recent advances in Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies have allowed a widespread diffusion of their use in different fields. 3D printing is becoming commonplace for biomedical applications requiring the custom fabrication of prostheses and appliances fitting patient-specific anatomies. In this work, the feasibility of a vat photopolymerization technology, based on Digital Light Processing (DLP), has been investigated for the manufacturing of polymeric orthodontic appliances. A custom DLP 3D printer has been developed by exploiting an off-the-shelf digital projector, with the aim at studying the influence of printing parameters on the surface roughness. The feasibility of using Dental LT Clear resin, a biocompatible photopolymer specifically designed for SLA technology, has been finally verified.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing | Custom DLP 3D printer | Orthodontic appliances

Abstract: 3D printed heterogeneous lattice structures are beam-and-node based structures characterised by a variable geometry. This variability is obtained starting from a periodic structure and modifying the relative density of the unit cells or by combining unit cells having different shapes. While several consolidated design approaches are described to implement the first approach, there are still computational issues to be addressed to combine different cells properly. In this paper, we describe a preliminary experimental study focused on exploring the design issues to be addressed as well as the advantages that this second type of heterogeneous structures could provide. The Three-Point-Bending test was used to compare the behaviour of different types of heterogeneous structures printed using the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology. Results demonstrated that the possibility of combining multiple unit cells represents a valid strategy for performing a more effective tuning of the material distribution within the design space. However, further studies are necessary to explore the behaviour of these structures and develop guidelines for helping designers in exploiting their potential.

Keywords: 3D printing | Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM) | Heterogeneous lattice structures | Lightweight design

Abstract: This review focuses on the design process of additively manufactured mesoscale lattice structures (MSLSs). They are arrays of three-dimensional (3D) printed trussed unit cells, whose dimensions span from 0.1 to 10.0 mm. This study intends to detail the phases of the MSLSs design process (with a particular focus on MSLSs whose unit cells are made up of a network of struts and nodes), proposing an integrated and holistic view of it, which is currently lacking in the literature. It aims at guiding designers' decisions with respect to the settled functional requirements and the manufacturing constraints. It also aims to provide an overview for software developers and researchers concerning the design approaches and strategies currently available. A further objective of this review is to stimulate researchers in exploring new MSLSs functionalities, consciously considering the impact of each design phase on the whole process, and on the manufactured product.

Keywords: additive manufacturing | design for additive manufacturing | design process | mesoscale lattice structures | multifunctional lattice structures

Abstract: Melt rheology in injection molded metastable supercooled liquid metal of Zr44-Ti11-Cu10-Ni10-Be25 alloy may induce selective crystallizations. High mobility Be, Cu and Ni atoms have been observed to differently crystallize in bulk metal glassy supercooled liquids. Here, we analyze the result of morphological microscopic observation conduct on Bulk Metallic Glass (BMG) with composition of a commercial liquid metal alloy (LM001B). The injection molded plate has been supplied by “Liquid Metals Technologies Inc, Ca USA” and manufactured using an Engel injection molding machine operating at 1050-1100°C; the observed sample then has been cut by water jet. FEI Scios Dual-Beam has carried out the microscopic observation. Particularly, through a cross section, we observe the presence of crystalline phases on the short-range order. We investigate the presence of short-range order clusters, their distribution and the effect that they could cause on the alloys’ behaviors and properties.

Keywords: Bulk glass metals | Chemorheological model | Cold crystallization | Rheology | Segregation

Abstract: The research shows a bioinspired approach to be adopted to design of systems based on Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), a class of Smart Materials that has in common with muscles the capability to react to an impulse (thermal for SMAs) with a contraction. The biomechanically inspired machine that is discussed in the paper refers to the antagonistic muscles pairs, which belongs to the Skeletal Muscles and are normally arranged in opposition so that as one group of muscles contract another group relaxes or lengthens. The study proposes a model, a solution not only to design a specific application, but also to provide an approach to be used for a wide range of adaptive applications (switchable windows, smart shadow systems, parking and urban shelters, etc.), where the shape changes in response to different external stimuli. The use of antagonist pairs mechanism provides a solution for better optimized systems based on SMAs where the main and proven advantages are: Easier and faster change of shape, lower need of energy for system operation, lower cost for SMA training and no problem of overheating.

Keywords: Centrifugal pipe | Chemo-rheology | Glass reinforced plastics | Process control | Smart factory